literature review

The capacity to see the deeper meaning of surface phenomena is described by Fonseca-Chavez et al. (2020) as la facultad: "an instant sensing, a quick perception arrived at without conscious reasoning [...] an awareness mediated by the part of the psyche that does not speak, that communicates in images and symbols..." (p.38).  

Perceptual Frames | Lewicki et al. (2016) describe perception as the sense-making process through which we connect with our environment, enabling us to respond appropriately. Lewicki et al. (2016) use the construct of perceptual frames to make visible the subjective mechanisms we use to organize, evaluate, and make sense of the world around us, based on what we perceive to be meaningful. For example, properties such as magnitude, colour, shape, texture, and relative novelty may have subjective meanings that act as perceptual shortcuts to help navigate complex worlds (Lewicki et al., 2016; White, 1999). 

Worldviews | Fonseca-Chavez et al. (2020) observe that across cultures, origin stories "feature accounts of where a people came from as a way of telling how they came to be" (p. 12) and our locura (worldview) is shaped by the landscape, people, culture, and place of our upbringing, our queriencia(s). 

Stories | Kimmerer (2013) conceptualizes the hidden assumptions and cultural understandings carried in language as the ‘stories we tell ourselves’ to make sense of our environment, inviting us to ‘pick up’ a new story or return to an old one if the current story is not serving us. The experience of 'picking up new and old stories’ makes visible hidden connections and deep tensions between images of thought carried in language, fundamental human growth needs, and psychological safety in the learning environment (Brendtro et al., 2013; Mondschein and Moga, 2018).

Sense Making | White (1999) observed that “we tend to see what we expect to see”. For example, the reputation, names, and words we use for a place predispose us to be alert to certain elements and qualities, and the sights, sounds, and scents we experience there form immediate impressions that are tied to past experiences which have their own emotional content and meaning. Lynch (1960) recognized that places and objects stored in our mental maps “are not recalled for their physical presence per se, but because they are significant for something – “functionally, socially, or symbolically” (Pocock, 1979, p. 284). 

Mental Maps | In The Image of a City, Lynch (1960) describes mental maps as an environmental image whose original function was wayfinding and its emotional associations enabling the recognition of familiar and meaningful elements that “may help to assuage fear, to establish an emotionally safe relationship between [individuals and] their total environment” (p.127). In addition to serving “as a map for the direction of movement”, mental maps “serve as a general frame of reference within which the individual can act, or to which [they] can attach [their] knowledge [...] a body of belief, or a set of social customs: it is an organizer of facts and possibilities” (Lynch, 1960, p.126). 

Reframing | Based on the understanding that we experience our environment through our perceptual lenses, mental maps, or images of thought, the concept of ‘reframing’ refers to temporarily shifting our perspective from what we often uncritically assume to be the ‘way things are’ to consider what ‘might be true’ in different contexts and from diverse perspectives (Kolb and Kolb, 2005; Lewicki at al., 2016; Rahm, 2014; Wheatley, 2006). 

Sense of Home | Fonseca-Chavez et al. (2020) observe that across cultures, origin stories "feature accounts of where a people came from as a way of telling how they came to be" (p. 12) and our worldview and identity are shaped and sustained through relationships, attachments to the landscape, people, culture, and place of our upbringing, our queriencia(s). 

Querencia | Anzaldúa (1987) and Arellano (2007) use the traditional New Mexican concept of querencia, stories etched in landscapes through the cultivation and nurturing of identity and friendships, to define the relationship between place and identity. Querencia is "a place where one feels safe, a place from which one's strength of character is drawn, where one feel at home" (Arellano, 2007, p. 50). 

Fonseca-Chavez et al. (2020) observe that home is not always a source of safety and comfort and our sense of querencia can include multiple places and unique combinations of:

• nurturing
• belonging, and/or 
• ideals of friendship, family, community, and place 

Belonging | Our psychological sense of belonging is generally defined as the feeling of ease, safety, connection, and respect that Ahn and Davis (2020) observe is "the relational aspect of ontological security, which develops in everyday life on the personal level and links a person to society" (p. 628). 

Ahn and Davis' (2020) identified four domains of belonging at university: 

1. Academic (university, professors, curriculum)
2. Social (friends, community, participation)
3. Surroundings (living space, culture, environment, location)
4. Personal (identity, needs, interests) 

Ontological Security | Ontological security refers to security of the self, of who we are, the fundamental human need to "experience oneself as a whole, continuous person in time", enabling and motivating action and choice (Mitzen, 2006, p. 341). In order to be ourselves, act, and learn to co-act better together in a world of information too vast to process, Baumeister and Leary (1995) and Mitzen (2006) observed that we routinize relationships with significant others to minimize the cognitive load of uncertainty, imposing "cognitive order on the environment". 

Routines | Routines are unthinking or habitual responses. Routinization of relationships relieves us of the burden of constant decision making, giving us the ability to take some information for granted, a mechanism for generating trust in society through "shared cognitive ordering of the environment" (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; Mitzen, 2006, p. 348). As a "security-seeking social practice that implicates identity", routines are characterized by Mitzen (2006, p. 363) as:

• internally programmed automatic cognitive and behavioural responses to information
• suppression of reflection on new information collected from our environment
• inoculation against the paralyzing fear and overwhelming cognitive load of too much or too little information to make sense of the world around us

Mode of Attachment to Routines | Observing that learning is a routinized response that requires basic trust to disrupt taken-for-granted assumptions and critical distance for reflection, Mitzen (2006) defines two general modes of attachment to routine:

1. Flexible | The flexibility of healthy ontological security enables 'seeing' disruptions to routines from a centrally firm sense of our own and others' reality and identity. Feeling confident that our environment will be predictably reproduced, brings inevitable uncertainty within tolerable limits and enables us to pursue other goals like learning.
2. Rigid | The rigidity of maladaptive ontological security constrains learning by protecting the routines themselves rather than the self-concept that they protect. Disruption to routines in a dysfunctional trust system threatens our self-concept which causes anxiety; the more anxiety we feel, the more rigidly we cling to routines.

Social Capital | The concepts of belonging and social capital are theoretically and empirically intertwined. Social capital can be understood as a collective good coming from:

1. shared norms and values, 
2. social trust, and 
3. reciprocity 

which are significant contributors to "a healthy, happy, safe, and effective society (Ahn and Davis, 2020; Putnam, 2000). 

Creswell (2015) defines place as spaces that people are attached to and have made meaningful, a meaningful location that includes three foundational aspects: 

1. Objective Location | The objective coordinates of a location where we can 'place' ourselves.
2. Physical Landscape | The visual form, material shape, or physical landscape of a locale that is the setting for social relations.
3. Subjective Inner Landscape | The subjective and collective emotional place attachments, or sense of place, related to our need to consume and produce meaning. 

Participation in the Production of Place

Kolb and Kolb (2005) describe learning as the process of becoming a legitimate member of a community through participation and socialization into a wider community of practice, consistent with Lave and Wenger’s (1991) use the example of apprenticeship. “To produce place means establishing a strong sense of community and belonging that leads to place attachment and identity” (Marques et al., 2020, p. 13). 

Co-Creating Place | Place provides the setting for the relational process of community building and meaning making, reinforcing Follett's (1918) conception that the purpose of education is to learn how to act and co-act better together, an ongoing activity-between us.

Establishing A Sense of Community | To effectively participate in the production of place requires the psychological safety of relationships and relational processes beyond simply sharing a location in common (Huber, 1998; Lave and Wenger, 1991; Marques et al., 2020). Socialization into the larger community, often through the mentorship and guidance of a senior member such as Elders, teachers, parents, and organizational leaders, enables resilient networks of relationships to be built through which information and resources are exchanged (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Wheatley, 2006). 

Establishing A Sense of Belonging | Belonging is a reciprocal relationship between people and their total environment that involves a search for congruence, cohesiveness, unity; a sense of familiarity between our self image (our sense of self, sense of home, our sense of what is 'good' and 'right' in the world) and our image or perception of a place. Personal affinity (a spontaneous, natural liking suggesting a relationship) for a place is foundational to our sense of place, a multidimensional, complex construct used to characterize the relationship between people and spatial settings/contexts (Casey, 2001). Sense of place and place attachment "fold together material characteristics and symbolic meanings" from our personal experiences of a specific place (Haase et al., 2021, p. 2). 

Attachment and Identity | A sense of congruence between personal and place aesthetics, values, and vision enables us to contribute to something larger than ourselves: a shared purpose that is the living essence of community (Huber, 1998; Tuan, 1979). Participating in the production of place enables seeing the impact of our unique personal contributions in relation to the whole, which can affirm and strengthen:

• our sense of self (identity), meeting our need for autonomy and achievement; and
• our sense of place (role or position in the social structure), meeting our need for attachment, and altruism (Follett, 1918; Brendtro et al., 2013; Marques et al., 2020).

In The Image of The City, Lynch (1960) observed that there is a public image of any given city and these 'group images' enable us to act and co-act effectively: "Each individual picture is unique, with some content that is rarely or never communicated, yet it approximates the public image, which, in different environments, is more or less compelling, more or less embracing". Focusing on the physical environment, Lynch classified the most distinctive elements of our mental maps as: 

Paths | Channels along which we customarily, occasionally, or potentially move

• Paths tend to be streets, walkways, and transit lines
• Because we observe a place while moving through it, paths tend to be prominent  

Edges | Barriers or boundaries between areas, linear breaks in continuity that define districts

• Edges tend to be walls, river banks, railroad lines, multi-lane roads with barricades
• Edges tend to align with paths, but often define districts by inhibiting cross movement

Nodes | Focal points and transportation junctions

• Focal points are concentrations of activity such as street-corner hangouts and enclosed squares that often act as the community core or symbol of a district
• Junctions are the crossing or convergence of paths, events on a journey, breaks in transportation, moments of transition such as intersections, crosswalks
• As break-points in transportation where decisions must be made, junctions are key locations requiring heightened attention that tend to stand out in our mental maps

Districts | Neighbourhoods

• Defined areas of identifiable character, often used by people to structure a city 
• The boundaries of a district tend to be defined by edges and junctions (nodes; breaks in the paths used to transport ourselves to them, such as highway to city street)

Landmarks | Simply defined physical points of reference, location markers

• Physical objects like the sun, trees, mountains, buildings, signs, store fronts: clues of identity that are simple to define, unique, memorable, meaningful, or unexpected

          Filomena et al. (2019) distinguish between three types of landmarks:

1. Visual landmarks (highly visible, such as tall trees, big buildings, and bridges)
2. Structural landmarks (prominent spatial location, closeness, betweenness, centrality)
3. Cognitive landmarks (symbolically, practically, emotionally meaningful locations)

Threshold concepts, developed in education research, are a way of making visible the underlying collection of values, beliefs, and understandings that anchor a particular way of seeing and thinking about the world, often referred to as a worldview or paradigm, "the unspoken assumptions that most people accept as features of reality" (Loring, 2020, p. 184; Mayer and Land, 2006).  

Portals to new ways of understanding | Loring (2020) observes that threshold concepts "function as doors or portals that give the learner access to a new way of understanding the world" (p. 184). To a person that operates within a particular worldview, threshold concepts are self-evident truths, but because they constitute the framing of a different way of seeing the world, threshold concept can be counterintuitive to newcomers and outsiders (Loring, 2020).

Meyers and Land observe that threshold concepts are often (but not always):

1. Transformative (cause a significant shift in understanding unlikely to be forgotten) 
2. Integrative (expose hidden connections and explain phenomena in new ways)
3. Bounding (define the limits or draw the boundaries of a perspective or discipline)
4. Troublesome (deviate from the basic assumptions of a learners' existing worldview)

Threshold Concepts of Sustainability | For example, Loring (2020) used threshold concepts to make visible an exemplary list of threshold concepts that his students needed to master to effectively think from within the field of environmental sustainability, including the interrelated concepts of: 

1. Complexity (whole systems thinking; interrelatedness)
2. Collaboration (people are collaborative by nature and can develop shared systems)
3. Multiple Ways of Knowing (multiple, simultaneously valid, knowledge systems)
4. No Panaceas (solutions must fit with local culture and ecology; no universal fixes) 
5. Adaptability (sustainability is a process of managing change; stability is an illusion)

Learn more: Loring, P. (2020). Threshold concepts and sustainability: features of a contested paradigm. Facets, 5(1), pp. 182–199.

Sustainable Knowledge Ecosystem | Similar to threshold concepts which act as portals to new understandings by making visible hidden knowledge, Lynch (1960) described his mental sketch mapping method as a visual education cycle which Pocock (1979) found to be a valid tool in the "supremely important process of coming to understand" (p. 285). Congruent with Saper’s emphasis on making “knowledge danceable and accessible", "a radical epistemology that embraces differences and diversity as it impacts the form, presentation, and organization of knowledge” (Duxbury et al., 2019, p. 263), the threshold concepts and images of thought explored in this study are not intended to be comprehensive but exemplary, making visible important barriers that people from a wide diversity of experiences face belonging in “Canadian educational systems, which favour ethnocentric thinking” (Smith, 2016, p. 49). This study is an invitation to move "away from set patterns and goals and toward a more whole perspective, one that includes rather than excludes" (Fonseca-Chavez et al., 2020, p.b79). 

In Borderlands/La Frontera, Anzaldúa (1987) uses the Chicano and Latino concept of nepantla to describe the survival tactic that people caught between worlds often unknowingly cultivate. Nepantla, an Indigenous Nahuatl term for "the space between two bodies of water, the space between two worlds" (p. 276), is said to have been used by Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs to describe the feeling of being colonized by Spain in the 16th century. 

Borders | Anzaldúa (1987) observes that "borders are set up to define the places that are safe and unsafe, to distinguish us from them. A border is a dividing line, a narrow strip along a steep edge" (p. 3).

Borderlands | The concept of borderlands refers to "wherever two or more cultures edge each other, where people of different races occupy the same territory, where under, lower, middle, and upper classes touch, where the space between two individuals shrinks with intimacy" (Anzaldúa, 1987, p. i). 

Anzaldúa (1987) describes the US-Mexican border as una herida abierta, an open wound where two cultures merge to form a third place — a borderland: "a vague and undetermined place created by the emotional residue of an unnatural boundary" (p. i). In the borderlands that Anzaldúa considers home, "the thin edge of barbwire" fences "keep out trespassers" from a land that "was Mexican once and Indian always", where Gringo Americans' "hatred, anger, and exploitation" of Chicano, Latino, and Indigenous peoples are "the prominent features of this landscape" (p. i).

Nepantla | Nepantla refers to in-between-ness, literally and metaphorically living between two or more cultures, being at a crossroads, living in a state of invisibility, constant transition, a liminal space (Anzaldúa, 1987). 

Mental Nepantilism | Fonseca-Chavez et al. (2020) describe the "coming together of two self-consistent but habitually incompatible frames of reference" as an "inner war", a "constant state of mental nepantilism, an Aztec word meaning torn between ways" (p. 78). The discomfort of being torn between multiple cultural and spiritual value systems while "keeping intact one's shifting and multiple identity and integrity" (Anzaldúa, 1987, p. i) develops a tolerance for ambiguity, a "pluralistic mode" where the possibility of "uniting all that is separate occurs" (Fonseca-Chavez et al., 2020, p. 79). Anzaldúa (1987) describes her experience of living between cultures as seeing double, "first from the perspective of one culture, then from the perspective of another" and seeing from two or more perspectives simultaneously as "render[ing] those cultures transparent" (p. 276)

Lucha de froneras / A Struggle of Borders (Anzaldúa, 1987, p. 77)

Because I, mestiza,

continually walk out of one culture 

and into another,

because I am in all cultures at the same time,

alma entre dos mundos, tres, cuatro, 

me zumba la cabeza con lo contradictorio.

Estoy norteada por todas las voces que me hablan 

simultaneamente.

Read more: 

Anzaldúa, G. (1987). Borderlands/la frontera: the new mestiza. Spinsters/Aunt Lute. 

Fonseca-Chavez, V., Romero, L., and Herrera, S. (2020). Querencia: Reflections on the New Mexico Homeland. University of New Mexico Press.

Follett (1942, p. 39) observed that in a community, people with different frames of reference arrive at unity by “getting the desires of each side into one field of vision”, not from an either/or compromise. O’Donohue (1997) also lamented that the "mere replacement of one image or system by another, so often passes for change” (pp. 114 -115). Further, Follett (1918) saw the purpose of education as 'learning how to act and co-act better together' and O’Donohue (1997) advocated for developing thought models that are fair and appropriate to contradiction as a creative force. 

Different frames of reference of the concept of unity is an excellent example of the value of mental sketch mapping in the field of education: making visible the foundational assumptions that act as frames of reference, shaping what we see and how we see it. 

Difference | Always and everywhere, the human experience is complex and unique, making differences the norm (Turner, 1969). However, Chen-Worley (2021) highlights that "differences without being in unison are conflicting, isolated, and disoriented as a whole" (p.3). Mills and Watson (2021) found our socialized avoidance of conflict, risk-taking, and rule breaking to be a significant barrier to social unity. Unity framed as sameness can be understood as membership conditional on 'fitting in' to pre-defined standards of what is considered 'good' and valued; whereas unity framed as cohesiveness involves maintaining the integrity of our differences, the creation of something entirely new that did not exist before our meeting, “not the mere replacement of one image, surface, or system by another, which so often passes for change” (O’Donohue, 1997, pp. 114-115). 

Contradiction as a Creative Force | Chen-Worley (2021) states that, "differences need to be understood, respected, and bridged, so miscommunication can be minimized and behavior won't be misinterpreted according to the stereotype or subjectivity of a certain cultural norm" (p. 4). For example, Celtic stories and languages frame “difficulty [as] a great friend of creativity” and O'Donohue (1997) finds “thought models or patterns that are fair and appropriate” to “contradiction as a creative force” to be an important threshold concept for understanding Celtic perspectives (pp. 114, 155). Similarly, Mills and Watson (2021) found making visible our socialized avoidance of conflict, risk-taking, and rule breaking to be an important threshold toward co-creating belonging in our school communities.  

For example, the English language frames:

• 'fitting in at school' and being 'the right fit for the job' as positive social acceptance
• 'stepping out of line' as disobedience and disrespect for social norms
• 'fit' and 'line' express a set of pre-defined qualities that are valued, carried, inherited, and socialized through the English language: frames of reference
• the Eurocentric frame of reference shaped by the English language socializes an understanding of the concept of unity (cohesiveness) as uniformity (sameness)  
• assumptions of sameness as indicators of trustworthiness carry deficit assumptions 

What comes to mind when you think about 'fitting in'? 

What does fitting in or not fitting in mean to you?

Assimilation is where minority groups give up their cultures, traditions, and languages to adopt the language and traditions of the dominant culture (Chen-Worley, 2021). 

Cultural tyranny is defined as “dominant paradigms, predefined concepts that exist as unquestionable, unchallengeable... transmitted to us through the culture, [a] culture [that] is made by those in power” (Anzaldúa, 1987, p. 16; Fonseca-Chávez et al., 2020, p. 109).

Ethnocentric thinking is the tendency to evaluate other people and cultures through the standards of the dominant culture without feeling the need to understand other perspectives resulting in biased deficit assessments "harbor[ing] discrimination and inequity that eventually victimizes learners" (Chen-Worley, 2021). Smith (2013) finds that "current Canadian education systems, which favor ethnocentric thinking and are positioned in a Eurocentric model, are not supporting our Indigenous as well as their non-Indigenous counterparts" (p. 49).

Pluralism is where multiple ways of knowing, being, and doing can, and should, respectfully co-exist (Loring, 2020). Little Bear (2000) stated, "no matter how dominant a worldview is, there are always other ways of interpreting the world" (p.77). 

The process or activity of ascertaining one's position and planning and following a route (Oxford Dictionary, 2022). 

Lynch (1960) states that wayfinding is the original function of our mental maps, where vast amounts of detailed environmental images and information are stored, organized, and can be recalled later, helping us navigate our environment and create meaning from our experiences.

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